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Microsoft Research Detours Package
Detours is a software package for monitoring and instrumenting API calls on Windows. It is distributed in source code form.
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Take a look at immediate mode GUI frameworks, such as dear imgui
From a technical perspective, you have to inject yourself into the running game and put your drawing code after the game finishes its drawing code. For example, you could hook some APIs with Detours. Or create a fake DirectX/OpenGL DLL that intercepts the drawing calls and passes it along to the real DLL. With Vulkan you can also investigate creating your overlay as a custom layer.